Prisotnost Judov
Od pričetka judovske emigracije iz dežele Izraela v obdobju prvega stoletja našega štetja, pa vse do 13. stoletja, ni kakšnih natančnejših poročanj o Judih na področju današnje Slovenije. Dejstvo je, da so bili Judje prisotni v celotnem rimskem imperiju in da so se ukvarjali predvsem s trgovanjem. To pomeni, da so prebivali predvsem v večjih mestih. Dejstvo je tudi, da je bilo eno takih mest med drugimi tudi Emona. Znana arheološka najdba iz bližine Škocjana je oljčna svetilka z vgravirano menoro iz petega stoletja, kar potrjuje prisotnost Judov. Tako je verjetnost, da so Judje prebivali na današnjih slovenskih tleh že za časa rimskega imperija zelo visoka. Najbolj strnjeno področje judovskega poseljevanja v neposredni bližini, je bilo na področju Istre (predvsem v Pulju). Med leti 500 in 1000 je prav z Istre potekala ena glavnih poti judovske migracije po slovenskem ozemlju preko Ljubelja proti severu, se pravi na današnje področje Nemčije.
Jasno izpričana je prisotnost Judov v 12. stoletju. Večina Judov je prišla kot begunci pred križarji iz nemško govorečih predelov Evrope, nekaj tudi iz italijansko govorečih. V srednejm veku so obstajale judovske skupnosti v številnih mestih, kot na primer v Piranu, Kopru, Izoli, Ljubljani, Mariboru, Radgoni, Slovenj Gradcu, Ormožu, Celju in na Ptuju.
V poznem srednjem veku sta bili pomembnejši judovski središči Maribor in Gorica. Na slovenskem etničnem ozemlju so Judje prvič omenjeni na Koroškem, s koder je tudi izpričana krščanska legenda o “Blodečem Judu”. Blodeč Jud naj bi se pojavil tudi v Beljaku.
V Mariboru naj bi se Judje naselili v 12. stoletju. Mariborska judovska skupnost je bila precej razvita in številčna, saj so se tam Judje ukvarjali z bančništvom (s katerim se kristjani niso smeli ukvarjati), s trgovanjem in obrtjo. Mariborski Judje so imeli v lasti tudi mline in vinograde, kar je bilo vsaj v tistih časih precej nenavadno. Mariborski judovski skupnosti je predsedoval rabin, pravne spore s kristjani pa je reševalo t.i. judovsko sodišče. Eden svetovno znanih rabinov, ki je imel sedež v rojstnem Mariboru, je bil rabin Israel Isserlein, ki je opravljal vlogo glavnega rabina za Kranjsko, Štajersko in Koroško. Na žalost pa do sedaj še ni bilo resnejših poskusov, da bi se njegova številna dela, ki bi pripomogla k poznavanju slovenske zgodovine predvsem v omenjenem delu Slovenije, vzela pod drobnogled.
Ko se je v 14. stoletju pojavila kuga, se je vzporedno z njo pojavil tudi srdit antisemitizem, saj je bila krivda za razširjanje kuge pripisana Judom. Vrstili so se pogromi, v katerih so bile požgane judovske četrti na Ptuju, v Gradcu in Radgoni. Judovska finančna pomoč je pomembno vplivala na znane Celjske grofe, vendar je Herman II. Jude izgnal iz grofije že v 15. stoletju.
Janez Vajkard Valvasor je omenil obnovo ljubljanske sinagoge in jo postavil v leto 1213. Ljubljanski Judje so se ukvarjali predvsem z obrtjo, trgovanjem in bančništvom. Judovska četrt v Ljubljani je še danes prepoznavna, čeprav le toponimno. V stari Ljubljani ob Ljubljanici še danes imeni Židovska ulica in Židovska steza spominjata na nekdanjo tamkajšnjo judovsko četrt. V zgodnjem 16. stoletju je bil izdan odlok, ki je Judom prepovedal daljše bivanje na območju vojvodine Kranjske in od takrat je prisotnost Judov v Ljubljani zelo nestanovitna.
18. marca 1496 je cesar Maksimiljan, pod močnim pritiskom slovenskega plemstva, izdal edikt o pregonu Judov iz Štajerske in Koroške. Rok izselitve za vse Jude je bil 6. januar 1497. Edikt ni zajel področja Kranjske. Tam živeči Judje so se namreč odkupili, saj so cesarju ponudili več kakor plemstvo za izgon Judov. Vendarle so se pritiski nadaljevali in tako je pregon Judov uspel leta 1515. Večina izgnanih Judov se je naselila v bližnjih deželah, v habsburških delih Italije in na zahodnem Madžarskem, čeprav ostane izpričano dejstvo, da je nekaj izgnancev ostalo tudi po slovenskih vaseh (še danes so na slovenskem podeželju zaznavni judovski priimki). Pomembna ostalina iz tega obdobja je edini znan pristen slovenski judovski priimek Morpurgo, ki so ga prebivalci v zatočiščih, kamor so se zatekli mariborski Judje, dodelili prišlekom. Odloki o izgonu so se tekom stoletij ponavljali in obnavljali, kar izpričuje prisotnost Judov ali ponovne poskuse naselitve. Zadnji odlok je bil izdan celo leta 1828, posamezne omejitve za naseljevanje in trgovanje ter poslovanje pa so ostale vse do leta 1861.
Za časa Napoleonovih Ilirskih provinc se je nekaj Judov naselilo v slovenskih krajih, vendar le za kratko obdobje. Ena znanih in najbolj vplivnih družin iz tega obdobja je bila družina Heimann. Ko so bile Ilirske province leta 1815 ponovno priključene Avstriji, so obveljali stari zakoni. Leta 1817 je avstrijski cesar Judom prepovedal naseljevanje na Koroškem. Naseljevanje v omenjenih delih je bilo v 18., 19. in 20. stoletju, pod močnim antisemitskim vplivom, v veliki meri preprečeno in maloštevilčno.
Eno največjih judovskih središč se je pričelo oblikovati proti koncu 18. in v začetku 19. stoletja v Prekmurju. Izjemno močni judovski skupnosti sta bili vse do pričetka druge svetovne vojne v Murski Soboti in Lendavi. V okviru Jugoslavije je bila Murska Sobota od leta 1929 celo glavna judovska občina za Slovenijo. V Lendavi je 1843. leta pričela delovati judovska osnovna šola, leta 1853 pa je prvič omenjena tudi sinagoga (le-ta je bila petdeset let pozneje zadnjič obnovljena).
Leta 1941 se je po vsej Evropi pričela morija Judov znana kot holokavst. Tudi slovenski Judje se holokavstu niso izmaknili. Pred letom 1941 je na slovenskem območju živelo preko 4500 Judov. Velika večina Judov je klavrno končala v nacističnih plinskih celicah raznih uničevalnih taborišč (predvsem v Auschwitzu, kjer so pomrli skoraj vsi prekmurski Judje). Slovensko judovstvo je trpelo ne le pod Nemci, temveč tudi na področjih okupiranih z italijanske strani. Znanih je mnogo tragičnih zgodb o boju posameznikov za preživetje. Večina slovenskih Judov iz ljubljanske pokrajine je bilo deportiranih v koncentracijsko taborišče na Rabu.
Precejšnje število slovenskih Judov se je pridružilo partizanskim enotam, ki so se jim pridružili tudi mnogi Judje po Evropi, ki so bežali pred nacističnim terorjem. Po kapitulaciji Italije leta 1943, so judovski taboriščniki oblikovali poseben judovski bataljon v okviru jugoslovanskega partizanskega gibanja. Le pol leta zatem je bil zaradi izrecnega nemškega pritiska razpuščen; tako so se njegovi borci pridružili drugim enotam širom Jugoslavije.
Novejša zgodovina
Večina Judov, ki je preživela drugo svetovno vojno, se je odselila v tujino, predvsem v deželo Izraela. Kmalu po vojni se je ponovno oblikovala Judovska skupnost Slovenije (JSS), ki je bila do leta 1991 del Zveze jugoslovanskih judovskih skupnosti. Nenaklonjenost jugoslovanskih oblasti (predvsem zaradi mednarodne politike Jugoslavije v odnosu do države Izrael) in strogo ateistična družba ni dopuščala večjega razvoja Skupnosti. Za časa Jugoslavije se je JSS močno preobrazila. Povratek v deželo Izraela se je nadaljeval. Zaradi nenehnih migracij znotraj Jugoslavije, JSS dandanes vključuje mnogo judovskih priseljencev iz nekdanje skupne Države. Mnogi člani so Sefardi (tradicionalno slovensko judovstvo je bilo vedno aškenaško). Največ Judov živi v večjih mestih, predvsem v Ljubljani.
S pomočjo judovske organizacije imenovane American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, je JSS leta 1997 v Ljubljani kupila prostore. Oktobra 1999 je JSS inavgurirala prvega Glavnega rabina za Slovenijo.
V Lendavi se je od nekdanje številčne judovske skupnosti ohranila sinagoga in hiša, v kateri je bival lendavski rabin. Poleg lendavske se je ohranila tudi sinagoga v Mariboru, v kateri danes deluje muzej in ne služi kot obredni prostor. V Sloveniji pa je tudi nekaj judovskih pokopališč. Ohranila so se stara pokopališča v Lendavi, Murski Soboti in Novi Gorici. V Ljubljani se nahaja tudi naše aktivno pokopališče in sinagoga Judovske skupnosti Slovenije.
Jewish presence
Ever since the start of Jewish emigration from the Land of Israel in the 1st century CE until the 13th century, there are no exact sources and reports of Jews on Slovene soil. Modern day Slovenia was part of the Roman Empire, and Jews were present all over the Empire, especially in the larger cities and commercial centres. Emona (nowadays Ljubljana) was one of those cities, which means that it is very possible that there was Jewish presence. A well known archaeological find of an engraved menorah from the 5th century is known from Škocjan. The area of Pulj on the Istra peninsula in the vicinity of what is nowadays Slovenia, is known to have been very densely settled by Jews. During the years 500 – 1000 one of the main Jewish migration routes traversed Slovenia through the Ljubelj (Loibl) pass, north through the Alps towards modern day Germany.
There are numerous reports of strong Jewish presence on Slovene soil, starting from the 12th century onwards. Many came as refugees from German territories in flight of persecution, especially from the crusaders. Some immigrants were also from Italian speaking areas. There have been numerous Jewish settlements in different Slovene towns throughout the middle ages. Piran, Koper, Izola, Ljubljana, Maribor, Radgona, Slovenj Gradec, Ormož, Celje and Ptuj just to name a few.
In the late Middle Ages the more important Jewish settlements were in Maribor and Gorica. Jews are mentioned for the first time in Carinthia, where the famously infamous Christian legend of the “Wandering Jew” is part of the folklore. The Wandering Jew is known to have been mentioned throughout Carinthia and also in the town of Beljak (Villach).
The 12th century is also the time when the thriving Jewish Community of Maribor is supposed to have been established. The Community was very advanced and numerous. The Jews of Maribor dealt with a wide variety of professions, from money lending (which was officially forbidden to Christians) to trade and handicraft. Maribor Jewry owned mills and vineyards, which is a quite unusual and unique historical fact. In charge of Community affairs was the local resident Rabbi and disputes with Christian neighbours were settled by the local Jewish court. One of the most important personalities of Slovenia’s Jewish history was the Maribor-born Rabbi Israel Isserlein, who was the Chief Rabbi of Carinthia, Styria and Carniola and spent most of his life as a resident of Maribor. Unfortunately, there have been no serious attempts to research his numerous written documents to date. Apparently, they could play a very important role to understand, not only Jewish history in the region, but the region in its broader historic sense.
The emergence of the plague in the 14th century caused a flood of anti-Semitic sentiment. In similar fashion as throughout the rest of Europe, Jews were accused of being the reason for the horrors of the plague. This soon gave rise to numerous pogroms and the burning of Jewish quarters in Ptuj, Gradec (Graz) and Radgona. Jews provided plenty of financial help to the (well known) Slovene Counts of Celje, but count Herman II. evicted Jews already in the 15th century.
Janez Vajkard Valvasor, a well known and studied Slovene historian, mentioned the restoration of the Ljubljana Synagogue in 1213 in his famous History of the Duchy of Carniola. The most common occupation of Ljubljana’s Jewry was money lending and trade. The Jewish quarter in Ljubljana is still recognizable, although only by the names of two small streets that are still named Jewish street and Jewish path. An edict in early 16th century ended the period of a distinct Jewish quarter in this city. Ever since (until lately) Jewish presence has only been temporary or very low in numbers.
On the 18th of March 1496 the Emperor Maximilian of the Austrian Empire issued an edict of eviction for the Jews of Carinthia and Styria. He was under strong pressure of the local nobility. The edict stated that the eviction is to be implemented no later than the 6th of January 1497. The edict did not include the eviction of the Jews of Carniola region (duchy). The Jews of Carniola offered a high amount of ransom money, which exceeded the offer of the local nobility for the eviction edict. The pressures continued and even mounted during the next few years and the eviction was extended to the Duchy of Carniola in 1515. Most of the evicted Jews settled in neighbouring Habsburg lands like Italy and western Hungary, but some apparently also settled in Slovene villages (throughout Slovenia’s countryside Jewish family names can be found to this day). Those expulsions gave rise to a new distinctly Jewish surname – Morpurgo, which denotes someone from Maribor (Marburg). Evictions continued during the next few centuries, which is a clear indicator of Jewish presence and strong anti-Semitic sentiment. The last of these evictions was issued in 1828, but restrictions on settlement and business remained until 1861.
During Napoleons occupation of modern day Slovenia and the establishment of the Illyrian provinces, Jewish settlement resumed for a brief period. With the return of the provinces to Austria in 1815, this period was over and an additional order was issued by Emperor Francis II., which forbade Jewish settlement in Carniola in 1817. Settlement in the above mentioned areas was very limited in the 18th, 19th and 20th century.
One of the largest Jewish centers developed at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century was in the far eastern parts of Slovenia – Prekmurje. There were very strong Jewish communities in the towns of Murska Sobota and Lendava. Murska Sobota was even the Chief Jewish community of Slovenia from 1929 until WWII. In 1843 a Jewish school was established in Lendava and in 1853 a synagogue is mentioned for the first time in the same town. It was overhauled 50 years later for the last time.
The Holocaust, which started throughout Europe in the 1930’s, came to Slovenia in 1941. About 4500 Jews lived in Slovene areas before 1941. The vast majority of Slovene Jewry perished in the crematoria of Auschwitz and other extermination camps. German forces kept deporting Slovene Jewry until 1945. There is a little known fact that Italian forces in western and southern Slovenia also deported numerous Jewish families to Italian concentration camps. The majority of Ljubljana Jewry was deported to a concentration camp on the Croatian island Rab.
Later, the Jewish prisoners from Rab formed a special Jewish battalion as an integral part of the Yugoslav resistance forces. The battalion was disbanded after half a year of heavy fighting, because of intense German ideological pressure against the Jewish battalion. The battalion’s members joined other partisan units throughout Yugoslavia. A number of Jews joined the Slovene resistance (the Partisan) forces in their fight against the enemy.
Contemporary history
The majority of Jews who survived, migrated immediately after WWII, most of them to the Land of Israel. Soon, the Jewish Community of Slovenia (JCS) was formed once again, which was a part of the Federation of Yugoslav Jewish Communities unitl Slovenia’s secession in 1991. Its development was seriously hampered by Yugoslavia’s strong anti-Israeli sentiment and strict atheist communist society. The JCS was transformed to a great extent during these times. The return to the Land of Israel continued. Due to migrations between the constituent republics of Yugoslavia, the JCS today includes many Jews from other parts of the former Country, many of them Sephardic (traditional Slovene Jewry was always Ashkenazic). Today, most Jews live in the capital of Ljubljana.
In 1997 the JCS bought an office for the first time, with help from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee. In October 1999 the first ever Chief Rabbi of Slovenia was inaugurated by the JCS.
Traces of Jewish history are to be found in the formerly rich Community of Lendava – the Rabbi’s domicile and the Synagogue. Another synagogue remains in Maribor which has been restored, but does not function as a synagogue. There are a few cemeteries in Lendava, Murska Sobota and Nova Gorica. Our active cemetery and the Synagogue of the Jewish Community of Slovenia are both located in Ljubljana.